Anatolia is the name currently applied to the Asian territory of modern Turkey. The art of Anatolia has an unusually long history extending from antiquity to the modern day. It encompasses the material culture of numerous civilizations: the Hittite (18th - 12th century BC), Assyrian (19th - 9th century BC) and Akkadian empires (24th - 22nd century BC) in the Bronze Age, followed by the Seleucid (4th - 1st century BC) and Seljuk empires (11th - 12th century AD). Anatolian works of art were transported along trade routes to Greece and Italy, and therefore some aspects of Greek and Roman art draw their inspiration from Anatolia as well as the Near East.

The earliest art of Bactria, a land located in the north of Afghanistan and beyond into Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, was produced by a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia beginning about 2200 BC The art of this culture includes distinctive bronze stamp seals, stone sculpture, including miniature columns of alabaster and marble, and composite figurines. This area subsequently became the northern most satrapy (province) in the Persian Empire. After that empire fell to Alexander the Great, Bactria became part of the Seleucid empire ruled by Alexander's successors. Powerful Hellenistic states were established in the area of ​​Bactria for three centuries following the conquests of Alexander around 330 BC: the Seleucid empire until 250 BC, followed by the Greco-Bactrian kingdom until 130 BC, and the Indo-Greek kingdom from 180 BC to around 10 BC

The Byzantine Empire flourished from the 4th century AD until the fall of the empire's capital, Constantinople, in 1453 AD Byzantine art is characterized by its strong religious and imperial themes. As the Byzantine Empire represented the political continuation of the Roman Empire, Byzantine art developed in large part from the art of the Roman Empire, which was itself profoundly influenced by ancient Greek art. Byzantine art never lost sight of this classical heritage. During the Byzantine period great fresco paintings and mosaics were produced as well as many luxury items such as carved ivories, jewelry, and enamels. Artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly with regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria,

Canaanite refers to the historical region of Canaan known from references in the Bible.The ancient city of Ugarit, a Canaanite site located in northwestern Syria, was a center of wealth and commerce from about 1450 to 1180 BC The remains of two temples, a palace , and private dwellings, as well as two libraries of ancient clay tablets written mainly in alphabetic Ugaritic, the major language of the city, were discovered at the site. Translations of the Ugaritic literary texts provided the first insights into the religion of the Canaanites, known previously mainly from the pages of the Bible. Ugaritic mythological tablets describe the activities of the main gods and goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon. Although there was no single state theology, the major gods reflect local geographical concerns about the fertility of the earth and the importance of water as well as relationships to the sky and the underworld. The universe was believed to be ruled in tandem by the older god El and a main warrior-god, Baal, surrounded by a council of deities and a lower level of attendant gods. More than 234 deities are recorded in such Ugaritic texts.

The Caucasus mountain range, which stretches from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, was home to a number of ancient peoples and their material culture. These include the Scythians and Persians as well as the ancient kingdoms of Armenia and Colchis. The term “Caucasian” covers a wide array of different styles and types of art from the region.

The Celts were noted by ancient writers as a people occupying lands in Europe, primarily north of the Mediterranean region from Galicia in the west to Galatia in the east. Produced by Celtic peoples beginning around 1000 BC, Celtic art has been found throughout the British Isles and northern, central, and western Europe. The unity of a population spread over such a large area is recognizable by their common speech and artistic traditions. The extensive geographic range and broad chronology of Celtic art extends from stone sculpture of the Bronze Age to fine metalwork of the 6th and 7th centuries AD Late Celtic iconography is derived largely from Graeco-Roman models and reflects elements of religious and cultural combinations found throughout Romano -Celtic areas.

The art of the Cycladic culture was produced in the Early Bronze age, primarily during 3rd millennium BC, on the Cycladic islands of the southwestern Aegean. These islands were rich in mineral resources such as iron, copper, lead, gold, and silver ores, as well as emery, obsidian, and marble. Located between mainland Greece, Crete, and Asia Minor, the Cyclades were ideally positioned for trade throughout the Aegean. Marble from the islands of Paros and Naxos was abundant and of very high quality, therefore Cycladic art is best known for its finely made marble vessels and abstract statuettes. These are mostly of female figures that range from simple modification of the stone to more developed representations of the human form that combine natural and abstracted features of anatomy giving.

Cyprus is a large island in the eastern Mediterranean that harbored various thriving cultures in antiquity from as early as the 9th millennium BC through the Roman period. Cyprus had a copious supply of highly valuable copper ore that was worked since late in the Chalcolithic period (ca. 3900-2500 BC), and the island's unique location made it a crossroads of trade and commerce. Cypriot art is distinctive and unusual in that it reflects a mixture of native and foreign influences. As a result of the island's central location, at various periods the art of Cyprus bears the influence of Greek, Phoenician, Near Eastern, Egyptian, and Roman art. Well-known for its pottery and limestone or terracotta sculpture, Cyprus also possessed a rich material culture comprised of a relatively large number of luxury items that could be made of ivory, faience,

The so-called “Dark Age” refers to the Early Middle Ages, between the fall of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD and the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire and the High Middle Ages in the 10th century AD Art of this period is characterized by Christian motifs, and takes many different forms including, but not limited to, illuminated manuscripts, rich embroidery and textiles, and precious metalwork.

The art of ancient Egypt, which was produced in the Nile valley throughout antiquity, can generally be divided into eight periods: Pre-Dynastic (from the 6th to the 3th millennium BC), Old Kingdom (ca. 2649-2150 BC), Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030-1640 BC), New Kingdom (ca. 1550-1070 BC), the Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 BC), Late Egyptian (ca. 712-332 BC), Ptolemaic (from the 3rd through the 1st century BC), and Romano-Egyptian (ca. 30 BC through the 2nd century AD). Most Egyptian art was either created specifically for burial with the deceased or was used in life and then subsequently buried with an individual for use and pleasure in the afterlife. Therefore the art of ancient Egypt is well-known for works related to the afterlife: mummies and their sarcophagi, pyramids, and wall paintings that decorated tomb chambers and mortuary chapels.

The Etruscans were an indigenous people who primarily unusited that region of central Italy (Etruria) extending between the Arno and the Tiber Rivers. The Etruscan culture initially developed from an early Iron Age civilization in northern Italy known as Villanovan and other influences from the eastern Mediterranean. The Etruscans prospered from the 8th to the 2nd century BC, when they were gradually overpowered and their culture was absorbed by the expansion of the Romans. The agriculturally rich land of Etruria contained copious mineral supplies of copper and iron, and subsequently the Etruscans became master bronze smiths who exported their work throughout the Mediterranean. Etruscan art is widely admired for its figural sculptures and statuettes of bronze or terracotta, bronze metalwork, painted terracotta, and wall paintings. Etruscan gold-work and jewelry, including engraved gems, were as highly prized in antiquity as they are in our own day. As a result of their extensive contact with other peoples, which was initially brought about by trade, the Etruscan culture was heavily influenced by Greeks and their neighbors and trading partners from the east. Despite outside influences however, Etruscan art has been recognized as a particularly distinct and unique product of Italian culture.

The art of the Bronze Age was created throughout the Mediterranean region, Europe, the Near East and Northern Africa from about 3200 BC to about 1200 BC or later in more remote geographical areas. The advent of the Bronze Age in Europe witnessed the effects that settled agriculture had upon its various people, for these populations that formerly may have been semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers experienced a change in their relationships due to the stable surroundings of village life. The production of bronze objects and pottery then became possible with the growth of settled village life and associated agricultural and pastoral communities. This transformation is reflected in their burial types and grave goods.

The artistic achievements of ancient Greece, celebrated and imitated throughout history, tower over the art and architecture of many contemporary and subsequent cultures. The art of ancient Greece is primarily known for its monumental stone architecture, unique style of figural vase painting, and graceful sculptures in marble, bronze, and terracotta. The material culture of Greece also includes many smaller scale works of art that are not any less magnificent in spite of their size. These include a wide array of finely made gold jewelry, silver and bronze vessels, engraved gemstones, coins, terracotta figurines, and statuettes of bronze. In its widest chronological scope the art of Greece began in the third millennium BC and extend through the end of the Hellenistic period in the first century BC However its influence continued in the Roman period and survived intervening centuries to impact the art of the Renaissance and our own modern era. Greek art has an extensive geographical range and is confined not only to works made in mainland Greece, but also the Greek Islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. It extends from the western Mediterranean colonies, primarily in Sicily and south Italy to cities and trading outposts in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, penetrating even into western and central Asia. Greek art has an extensive geographical range and is confined not only to works made in mainland Greece, but also the Greek Islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. It extends from the western Mediterranean colonies, primarily in Sicily and south Italy to cities and trading outposts in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, penetrating even into western and central Asia. Greek art has an extensive geographical range and is confined not only to works made in mainland Greece, but also the Greek Islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. It extends from the western Mediterranean colonies, primarily in Sicily and south Italy to cities and trading outposts in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, penetrating even into western and central Asia. Greek art has an extensive geographical range and is confined not only to works made in mainland Greece, but also the Greek Islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. It extends from the western Mediterranean colonies, primarily in Sicily and south Italy to cities and trading outposts in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, penetrating even into western and central Asia. Greek art has an extensive geographical range and is confined not only to works made in mainland Greece, but also the Greek Islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. It extends from the western Mediterranean colonies, primarily in Sicily and south Italy to cities and trading outposts in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, penetrating even into western and central Asia.

Among the earliest works of art produced on mainland Greece and the Greek islands were those created by two Bronze Age cultures during the late 3rd and 2nd millennia BC: the Minoans located on Crete and the Cycladic Islands of the Aegean, and the Mycenaeans on mainland Greece with settlements primarily on the Peloponnesus and the Attic peninsula. The Mycenaeans thrived from 1600 to 1100 BC and erected great palatial structures at Athens, Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, and elsewhere. Artistic work of the Early Minoan period indicates advances in the art of engraved gems, stone vases, metalwork, and pottery. The Minoans are also known for the remains of their grand palaces on Crete that were created around the 19th century BC These have been identified as administrative centers for redistribution of agricultural commodities at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, and Zakro. Exports from Minoan Crete consisted of timber, foodstuffs, cloth, and likely olive oil and luxury goods; imports included tin, copper, gold, silver, emery, semi-precious stones, and ivory. The great artistic advances made during this time are reflected in both Minoan and Mycenaean architecture, painted pottery, and intricate metalwork.

Geometric Greek art was produced from ca. 900-700 BC, which for the ancient Greeks was a time of an important transformation leading to the formation of the Greek city-state, the development of the Greek alphabet and writing, as well as the dramatic advancement of trade relations and colonization from southern Italy and Sicily to the coast of Asia Minor. The rise of a unified state religion led to the construction of large temples and sanctuaries dedicated to the Olympian gods. A revival in the visual arts led to the representation of Greek myth and scenes' s Iliad and Odyssey. The emerging aristocratic class distinguished itself with material wealth subsequently used to furnish their burials with metal objects, finely painted pottery, engraved gems and gold jewelry. During this time mages of the armed warrior, chariot, and horse are among the most familiar symbols. Most were depicted in the form of finely cast statuettes of bronze or on painted pottery in an angular geometric style, which gives the Geometric period its name.

Orientalizing Greek art (ca. 720-590 BC) flourished during the 7th century BC, however its presence in Greece extended from the last years of the 8th century until early part of the 6th century BC In the western Mediterranean the Etruscans also passed through an Orientalizing period at approximately the same time. During this period a dramatic increase in Greek international trade resulted in cultural contacts being formed between mainland Greece and the Near East and Egypt. These contacts led to the development of a Greek artistic style that was heavily influenced by the iconography and decorative motifs of those regions. This was also a period when easily discernible Greek religious and mythological themes were represented in Greek vase painting and metalwork, and artists developed entire figured scenes, which may have been influenced by the oriental tradition of narrative art. One of the most important consequences of contact with the east was the development of a written language in the newly invented the Greek alphabet, which was based on that of the Phoenicians. The Orientalizing period adopted eastern floral motifs such as the lotus, palmette, and rosette, and mythological beasts like the sphinx, griffin, siren, and the Chimaera (a composite animal having the body of a lion with the head of a goat on its back and a snake for a tail). Representations of natural fauna included lions, bovines, boars, wild goats, dogs, hens, and roosters. Engraved and embossed bronze metalwork, richly embroidered textiles, carved ivory, seal-stones, and other objects bearing eastern images were imported into Greece and inspired its artists to incorporate a visual “Orientalizing revolution” into their work. Orientalizing Greek pottery is often decorated with horizontal bands of animals bordered by floral designs, and the novel metal cauldrons and metal vessels produced during this period are often ringed by friezes of mythical beasts. With the inclusion of foreign motifs and techniques, the art of the Orientalizing period is as unusual as it is lively, particularly when compared with previous iconography of the Geometric period. and the novel metal cauldrons and metal vessels produced during this period are often ringed by friezes of mythical beasts. With the inclusion of foreign motifs and techniques, the art of the Orientalizing period is as unusual as it is lively, particularly when compared with previous iconography of the Geometric period. and the novel metal cauldrons and metal vessels produced during this period are often ringed by friezes of mythical beasts. With the inclusion of foreign motifs and techniques, the art of the Orientalizing period is as unusual as it is lively, particularly when compared with previous iconography of the Geometric period.

Greek art known as “Archaic” was produced for approximately two centuries, from the beginning of the 6th to the end of 5th century BC Notable examples of Archaic Greek art include early stone temples and other monumental buildings of the period as well as male kouroi and female kourai (stylized sculptures of human figures) and black figure and early red figure pottery. Figural sculptures of the Archaic Period are notable for having a unique facial expression called the “Archaic smile.” Although its exact meaning is unknown, such an expression gives a sense of life to the sculpture while also conveying an aura of serenity and well-being.

Greek art dating to the period ca. 480-323 BC is referred to as “Classical.” Notable examples of Classical art are the monumental sculptures of marble, bronze, or terracotta that were made as free-standing works of art and to adorn such temples as the Parthenon in Athens. Greek sculpture during this time focused on portraiture and the nude figure in art, which led to the gradual development of realistic portrayals of individuals and the human figure. The Classical period is known for its extremely fine vase painting that includes red-figure, white-ground, and black glaze pottery. Great strides were also made in the development of mosaic work, wall painting, and the so-called minor arts such as jewelry, glasswork, and small scale ivory, bronze, and terracotta statuettes.

In the later part of the 4th century B.C., when Alexander the Great conquered much of the known world at the time – from Greece to Asia Minor, Egypt, the lands of Persia, and as far as India – the empire he created and unprecedented contact with diverse cultures gave rise to the Hellenistic period. The death of Alexander in 323 B.C. marks the beginning of the period, which extends into the first century B.C. when Hellenistic art overlaps with that of the Roman period. With the Greek empire consolidated under Alexander, artists of the time continued and even surpassed the masterworks of previous Greek artist’s sculptures in marble and bronze, as well as paintings and mosaic’s generals succeeded him and became the first Hellenistic kings who separated the empire into kingdoms under their dynastic rule. These rulers became prominent patrons of the arts and commissioned public works of architecture and sculpture as well as luxury objects out of precious materials such as gold, silver, and ivory. Jewelry became elaborate in form and incorporated rare and precious stones, many of them coming from Asia through newly established trade routes. Created in an age of cultural contact between widely diverse peoples, Hellenistic art is distinctively rich in its subject matter and style. Although artists of the period were heavily influenced by earlier styles, they made great innovations in the realm of architecture, sculpture, painting, mosaics, and the decorative arts, which gives Hellenistic Greek art a look of richness and embellishment that superseded Classical Greek art and has barely been rivaled since.

The Hittites ruled over much of Anatolia and nearby regions between ca. 1650 and 1200 B.C. Groups speaking languages related to Hittite first entered Anatolia around 2000 B.C., but did not rise to prominence until ca. 1750 when the Hittite king captured a number of important cities and city-states, including Hattusha, modern Bogazköy, which became the Hittite capital. Carchemish in Syria was also eventually established as a royal center. Formerly an enemy, Egypt recognized the Hittites as an equal power, and the eventual defeat of an Egyptian army led to Hittite control as far south as Damascus. Peace was established between the Egyptians and Hittites ca. 1250 B.C., but sometime around 1200 B.C. Hattusha was violently destroyed, an event from which the Hittites in Anatolia never recovered. However Hittite traditions were maintained in northern Syria, such as at Carchemish, which flourished through the early centuries of the first millennium B.C. The art of the Hittites is noted particularly for the skill of their stone carvers and metalworkers. Bronze animal statuettes are prominent in the material culture of the Hittites, but they also produced representations of deities and warriors in the form of bronze statuettes.

The Iberian peninsula was desirable for both traders and invaders due to its key strategic position at the western part of the Mediterranean where it joins the Atlantic. Iberian culture was subsequently influenced by the civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean through trade and colonies first established by the Phoenicians, and later the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. At the end of the 3rd century B.C. Rome and Carthage waged a bitter struggle for control of this strategic peninsula and its rich silver mines. Rome was eventually successful, and by the early first century A.D. and during the rule of the Emperor Augustus, Iberia and its lands were Roman provinces. Almost all extant works of Iberian sculpture visibly reflect the impact of the foreign cultures with which it came into contact. Each of them has left its mark and therefore Iberian art developed a unique identity visible in forms that range from carved stone to cast bronze statuettes. Even Assyrian and Egyptian art, possibly derived via the influence of the Greeks and Phoenicians, is evident in various stone sculptures in the form of sphinxes, bulls, or lions. Statuettes of bronze found in Iberia are considered to be derived of early Greek and Orientalizing sculptural styles.

The art of the Islamic World covers a broad geographic area and range of artistic production, dating from as early as the 7th century A.D. with the rise of Islam and the establishment of the first Muslim-ruled states in the Middle East, to as late as the 20th century. Geographically, Islamic art encompasses many regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe where people lived within territory inhabited or ruled by culturally Islamic populations. Covering many lands and peoples over some 1400 years, Islamic art may vary widely and includes a broad range, from major works of Islamic architecture to the fine arts of calligraphy, painting, glass, metalwork, ceramics, jewelry and textiles. The art of the Islamic World often depicts scenes from the Qur’an, but not all of the productions are explicitly religious and include the rich and varied artistic expression of Islamic culture. The arts of Islam derive from a number of sources including Roman, Early Christian, and Byzantine art, which was incorporated by early Islamic art. The influence of Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia was particularly significant and Central Asian styles arrived with nomadic incursions; the influence of Chinese art had a formative effect on painting and textiles. There are repeating elements in many forms of Islamic art, such as the use of geometric floral designs in a pattern known as arabesques, which may also be used to symbolize the transcendent and infinite nature of God.

Medieval art, which encompasses the Romanesque, Gothic, and Byzantine styles, was produced in Europe from the 11th through the 15th centuries A.D. Building from its foundations in the art of the Roman Empire and incorporating Christian iconography with Celtic art and that of northern Europe, Medieval art is known for its distinctive architecture, sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, metalwork, textiles and tapestries, jewelry, and fine objects carved in ivory or decorated with colorful enamels. In conjunction with the rise of monasticism in Western Europe, Romanesque art was created in the period between the 11th century and the rise of Gothic art in the 12th century. It was the first regional style to be found throughout Europe, having been first developed in France and subsequently spreading to the Christian areas of Spain, and also England, Flanders, Germany and Italy. Gothic art originated about 1137 with the building of the Abbey Church at St. Denis and the subsequent architectural style developed in France. As with Romanesque architecture, it included sculpture as an integral part of architectural decoration. The Gothic style also became an international one, spreading throughout Europe until about 1430, after which it began to merge into the art of the Italian Renaissance.

Mesopotamian art broadly refers to works produced literally “between the two rivers” – the Tigris and the Euphrates. The region gave rise to some of the oldest western civilizations dating to as early as the 4th millennium B.C. The roots of our urban civilization lie with developments in Mesopotamia during the 3rd millennium B.C., which was a time of creativity when city-states and empires emerged in this vast region between the Mediterranean and Asia’s Indus River valley. The habitation of this area enabled a number of cultures, as part of a diverse but continually developing Mesopotamian civilization, to thrive for over 3000 years, from the formation of the first cities at the end of the 4th millennium B.C. until the early years of the Roman empire. As complex centers of civilization, these first cities led to the development of writing and the advancement of artistic expression. Mesopotamian art includes the art of the Sumerian cultures of the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900-2350 B.C.) in southern Mesopotamia, the Akkadians (ca. 2370-2230 B.C.), Assyrians (ca. 2000-600 B.C.), and Babylonians (ca. 2000-540 B.C.). The artistic style of Mesopotamian art in the 3rd millennium B.C. focused primarily on the relationship between the terrestrial environment of humankind and the heavenly divine realm of deities. Much of Mesopotamian art is therefore devoted to the celebrated power of kings and devotion to the gods. The growth of cities and ruling families additionally led not only to a demand for luxury items and artworks for individual use, but also architectural works on a grand scale, such as carved stone reliefs to glorify rulers and deities.

Neolithic art is found throughout out mainland Europe, the British Isles, the Near East, North Africa, Asia Minor, and Asia. Works of art remaining from this period are utilitarian, or take an anthropomorphic or zoomorphic form, and are made of naturally occurring materials such as carved and polished stone, bone, or antler. In later Neolithic times terracotta is used for pottery and figurines. The Neolithic period generally begins in the Middle East with humankind’s transition from being primarily “hunters and gatherers” to the establishment of the first agricultural settlements, the domestication of livestock around 8000 B.C., and eventually the manufacture of pottery. After its early development in the Levant, Neolithic culture spread east and west to southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia. In southeastern Europe agrarian societies appeared by about 6500 B.C., and through cultural fusion and migration Neolithic traditions spread west and north, reaching northwestern Europe by 4500 B.C. The period gradually ends around 3200 B.C. with the development of copper and subsequently bronze tools at the beginning the Bronze Age.

The art of ancient Persia first appeared in prehistoric times and subsequently came under the influence of a series of Mesopotamian empires that ruled over western Asia. Because Persian art was produced by a number of civilizations over more than a millennia it is far from uniform, but certain themes such as the hunt and the glorification of the kings and rulers are prevalent. The empires and cultures we typically identify with Persia include the Medes (ca. 10th – 6th century B.C.), the Achaemenids (ca. 6th – 4th century B.C.), the Parthians (ca. 3rd century BC – 3rd century A.D.) and the Sassanians (ca. 3rd – 7th centuries

A.D.). The Medes settled in central and western Iran after their arrival in the region at the end of the second millenium B.C. and the beginning of the first millenium B.C. From ca. 900 to 600 B.C. the Medes fell under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian empire based in Mesopotamia. After the fall of this Assyrian empire about 600 B.C. a unified Median state was formed and became a major power in the Near East. The Median kingdom itself was conquered in 550 B.C. by Cyrus the Great who established the Achaemenid Persian empire. This empire was the largest the ancient world had seen, extending from Anatolia and Egypt across western Asia to northern India and central Asia. The massive empire prospered until 330 B.C. when it was overcome by the armies of Alexander III (the Great). This led to the eventual establishment of the Parthian empire formed by a semi-nomadic tribe, the Parni, who had conquered the district of Parthia near the Caspian Sea and eventually became the dominant power in the Near East. Establishing a primary residence on the Tigris River in southern Mesopotamia, Parthian kings ruled for almost half a millennium until they were overthrown by Sasanian armies from southwestern Iran in the early 3rd century A.D. The Sasanians viewed themselves as successors of the Achaemenid Persians, and at its greatest extent their empire stretched from the Euphrates to the Indus River and included modern-day Armenia and Georgia. Eventually weakened by tribal movements in Central Asia, internal revolts, and wars with the Byzantine empire, Arab forces defeated the Sasanian armies in 642.

The Phoenicians, according to ancient authors, were a people who occupied the coast of the Levant in the eastern Mediterranean. Their major cities were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad. Unlike nearby inland states that were defined countries, these cities were fierce rivals and the Phoenicians represented a confederation of maritime traders. Except for Byblos, which had been flourishing as a trade center from at least the 3rd millennium B.C., Phoenician cities developed around 1500 B.C. The Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 B.C.) was a time of prosperity for these trading centers. The massive cultural disruptions that occurred in the Levant about 1175 B.C. apparently had a minimal effect upon the Phoenician coastal centers, which led to a continuity of Phoenician art and culture from the Late Bronze Age until the Hellenistic period around 300 B.C. By the late 8th century B.C. the Phoenicians founded trading outposts around the Mediterranean. Carthage, a Phoenician colony founded in 814 B.C., became one of their largest cities and eventually powerful enough rival Rome. The main economic resources of the Phoenician cities in the eastern Mediterranean were the cedars of Lebanon and murex snails, which were used to make purple dye. Phoenician artists were skilled in wood and ivory carving, metalworking, and textile production. The works they produced are a fascinating amalgam of a number of cultures, combining Aegean, northern Syrian, Cypriot, Assyrian, and Egyptian elements.

The art of ancient Rome extends from the Republican Period in the 2nd century B.C. to works produced during the Roman Imperial Period from the 1st to the 4th century A.D. Throughout this time, Roman artists were consistently inspired by a Greek artistic tradition, from which they borrowed heavily. Roman art is noted for its innovative architecture, finely executed wall paintings and mosaics, sculpture in bronze and marble, portrait sculpture, carved gemstones and ivory, glass, jewelry and metalwork of bronze and silver. Modern fascination with such objects is due to the exquisite quality of these works and the great range of artwork that was produced. These represent the many and diverse aspects of Roman civilization – from grand public monuments to personal objects of extremely fine craftsmanship. Such objects demonstrate their inspiration from the divine to the profane, and served both Imperial desires and those of the Roman upper classes for luxuria, finely made luxury goods.

At the height of the empire, Roman lands extended far beyond the confines of Italy. Therefore much of the artwork produced during the Roman period was made far from Rome itself, as far north as Britain, as far west as Spain, and as far south and east as Egypt, Cyprus, and Asia Minor. Roman art from the provinces is unique for it resulted from the artist taste of Rome itself combined with local traditions and the work of provincial artists.

The ancient art of Sardinia was produced by the Nuragic civilization beginning in the second millennium B.C. The Nuragic people take their name from the “nuraghi,” the unique and unusual large stone dwellings which they built throughout ancient Sardinia. In the late Bronze Age the working of that metal became an important activity in Sardinia, and by the 8th century B.C. the vitality of a metal based economy is attested by the large numbers and great variations of its bronze statuettes. One of the most distinctive art forms that Sardinia produced in antiquity, these small bronzes depict village chiefs, hunters, worshippers and animals. The frequent appearance of these bronze figures at sacred sites and wells suggest that they were offerings made in the fulfillment of vows.

Accomplished horse-breeders and horsemen, the Sarmatians were Indo-European tribes known for their extremely fine metalwork in gold and silver that is often decorated with images in the animal style. Originally from Central Asia and the area south of the Ural mountains, the Sarmatians settled in a broad region north of the Black Sea, which corresponded to the western part of greater Scythia, encompassing the modern Ukraine, southern Russia, and the eastern Balkans. At their greatest extent Sarmatian tribes extended from the Vistula River in southern Poland to the mouth of the Danube and eastward bordering the Black and Caspian seas. Sarmatian expansion put an end to Scythian rule in the North Black Sea area in the 3rd century B.C., and they prospered from that time until the 4th century A.D., after which they declined due to migrations of the Huns and Goths.

Scythian art was produced by the tribes of ancient Scythia (Eastern Europe and Central Asia in the region north of the Black Sea) from the 7th to the 3rd century B.C. Scythians are best known for their exquisite gold work, but they also produced finely made works of art in wood, leather, bronze, bone, iron, silver and electrum. Artisans created elaborate personal jewelry, weaponry ornaments, and horse trappings. These were often decorated with Central Asian motifs in the animal style with an added Greek realism that could also include scenes from Greek mythology. Their trade contacts with the Greek world imparted Scythian art with a unique quality. Images of fantastic animals such as sirens, or winged griffins attacking horses, stags, deer, and eagles were commonly used by Scythian artists, but they also depicted human faces, figural groups, warriors in combat, or scenes from daily life such as farming and herding that included individuals taming horses or milking sheep. Zoomorphic depictions also included semi-recumbent stags, deer, lions, panthers, horses, other domestic animals and birds.

The art of South Arabia was produced as early as the 8th century B.C. by a number of ancient kingdoms located in the area of modern-day Yemen. Figurative and decorative art of the region includes indigenous types and styles that are, in earlier times, influenced by the arts of Egypt or Mesopotamia, and later by Hellenistic Greece and Rome. South Arabian art is well-known for its distinctive statues of human figures and sculptures of animals such as bulls, antelopes and ibexes. These were carved both free-standing and in relief, and usually made of alabaster or limestone. Ancient civilizations may have associated alabaster, a translucent and cream-colored stone, with sunlight. The ancient Arabian kingdoms flourished until the 5th century A.D. as a result of agricultural wealth and trade of precious commodities, most importantly frankincense and myrrh, with the civilizations of Egypt, the Near East, and the Hellenistic and Roman empires. Incense played a vital role in many ancient religions as well as in the domestic life of the upper classes. Other commercial goods, such as spices and fragrances, were produced in South Arabia, and the region played a key role in the trade of products from Africa, the Persian Gulf, and India.

South Italian art ranges in date from the 7th to the 2nd century B.C., and was produced in the region of South Italy and Sicily – lands colonized by the Greeks and therefore called Magna Graecia (“Great Greece”) in antiquity. Although heavily influenced by the art of mainland Greece, the art of South Italy and Sicily includes distinctive works from the regions of Apulia, Campania, Lucania, and Messapia. Red-figure pottery is among the most notable South Italian art forms, which, although copying the shapes of Greek vases and painted with scenes inspired by Greek iconography and myth, still presents a style all its own. Other magnificent works of art, such as sculpture and statuettes in terracotta and bronze, gold jewelry, carved gemstones, wall-paintings, and bronze works that include vessels and personal ornaments as well as horse trappings, armor and weapons, all testify to the great economic wealth and cultural vitality of these Western Greek colonies.

The art of ancient Syria stands among the oldest made in the Near East, dating from the 7th millennium B.C. Throughout antiquity Syria was ruled by numerous kingdoms including those of the Canaanites, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hittites, and later the Persians, Greeks and Romans. Each civilization contributed its unique culture and artistic style, thus making the art of ancient Syria one of the most diverse of the region. Known for the examples of the earliest writing, ancient Syria also produced a variety of art objects, including cylinder seals, seal rings, gold jewelry, ivory carvings, and bronze or clay statuettes, vessels, and lamps. By the Roman period, the capital city of Antioch was among the largest cities in the empire, a major trading center, and noted for its rich decorative arts, sculpture of bronze and marble, and magnificent floor mosaics.

The early Iron Age in northern Italy is termed Villanovan after a site found near Bologna in the 19th century. The Villanovan period was preceded in the 10th and 9th centuries B.C. by a proto-Villanovan phase, which was a time of transition from the Apennine Bronze Age culture related to the Urnfield cultures north of the Alps. This early phase used geometric designs and figural representations that persisted as components of later Etruscan and Italic art. The usual ornamentation includes incised zigzags, triangles, concentric circles, swastikas, and figures of humans and animals, such as water-birds and horses. Developing further between the 9th and 8th centuries B.C., and contemporary with Greek Geometric art, the artistic production of the Villanovan Iron Age contributed to the development of early Etruscan art, particularly at Villanovan sites where Etruscans would later flourish. Villanovan art is noted for its bronze and iron metal work, particularly its large bronze vessels adorned with figurines, as well as simply decorated pottery, which was well-made in spite of being produced without use of the potter’s wheel. Although primarily from burial contexts, the art of the Villanovans focused on the form and decoration of objects for the house, such as terracotta and bronze vases of various shapes, or for ceremonial use, such as wide bronze belt plaques, protective armor and swords, and fibulae to fasten clothing.